tugas 1 OPERATING SYSTEM BASIC & MICROSOFT WINDOWS

1.1.1 Overview of pc operating system
An operating system is software, consisting of programs and data, that runs on computers, manages computer hardware resources, and provides common services for execution of various application software. The operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer system. Without an operating system, a user cannot run an application program on their computer, unless the application program is self booting.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,[1][2] although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.
1.1.2 Pc and computer network
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing of resources and information among interconnected devices.[1] Put more simply, a computer network is a collection of two or more computers linked together for the purposes of sharing information, resources, among other things. Computer networking or Data Communications (Datacom) is the engineering discipline concerned with computer networks. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering since it relies heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines.
Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, organizational scope, etc.
A communications protocol defines the formats and rules for exchanging information via a network. Well-known communications protocols are Ethernet, which is a family of protocols used in LANs, the Internet Protocol Suite, which is used not only in the eponymous Internet, but today nearly ubiquitously in any computer network.
1.1.3 The Kernel
In computing, the kernel is the main component of most computer operating systems; it is a bridge between applications and the actual data processing done at the hardware level. The kernel's responsibilities include managing the system's resources (the communication between hardware and software components).[1] Usually as a basic component of an operating system, a kernel can provide the lowest-level abstraction layer for the resources (especially processors and I/O devices) that application software must control to perform its function. It typically makes these facilities available to application processes through inter-process communication mechanisms and system calls.
Operating system tasks are done differently by different kernels, depending on their design and implementation. While monolithic kernels execute all the operating system code in the same address space to increase the performance of the system, microkernels run most of the operating system services in user space as servers, aiming to improve maintainability and modularity of the operating system.[2] A range of possibilities exists between these two extremes.
Kernel basic facilities
The kernel's primary purpose is to manage the computer's resources and allow other programs to run and use these resources.[1] Typically, the resources consist of:
• The Central Processing Unit. This is the most central part of a computer system, responsible for running or executing programs on it. The kernel takes responsibility for deciding at any time which of the many running programs should be allocated to the processor or processors (each of which can usually run only one program at a time)
• The computer's memory. Memory is used to store both program instructions and data. Typically, both need to be present in memory in order for a program to execute. Often multiple programs will want access to memory, frequently demanding more memory than the computer has available. The kernel is responsible for deciding which memory each process can use, and determining what to do when not enough is available.
• Any Input/Output (I/O) devices present in the computer, such as keyboard, mouse, disk drives, printers, displays, etc. The kernel allocates requests from applications to perform I/O to an appropriate device (or subsection of a device, in the case of files on a disk or windows on a display) and provides convenient methods for using the device (typically abstracted to the point where the application does not need to know implementation details of the device).
Key aspects necessary in resource managements are the definition of an execution domain (address space) and the protection mechanism used to mediate the accesses to the resources within a domain.[1]
Kernels also usually provide methods for synchronization and communication between processes (called inter-process communication or IPC).
A kernel may implement these features itself, or rely on some of the processes it runs to provide the facilities to other processes, although in this case it must provide some means of IPC to allow processes to access the facilities provided by each other.
Finally, a kernel must provide running programs with a method to make requests to access these facilities.
Process management
The main task of a kernel is to allow the execution of applications and support them with features such as hardware abstractions. A process defines which memory portions the application can access.[3] (For this introduction, process, application and program are used as synonyms.) Kernel process management must take into account the hardware built-in equipment for memory protection.
To run an application, a kernel typically sets up an address space for the application, loads the file containing the application's code into memory (perhaps via demand paging), sets up a stack for the program and branches to a given location inside the program, thus starting its execution.[5]
Multi-tasking kernels are able to give the user the illusion that the number of processes being run simultaneously on the computer is higher than the maximum number of processes the computer is physically able to run simultaneously. Typically, the number of processes a system may run simultaneously is equal to the number of CPUs installed (however this may not be the case if the processors support simultaneous multithreading).
In a pre-emptive multitasking system, the kernel will give every program a slice of time and switch from process to process so quickly that it will appear to the user as if these processes were being executed simultaneously. The kernel uses scheduling algorithms to determine which process is running next and how much time it will be given. The algorithm chosen may allow for some processes to have higher priority than others. The kernel generally also provides these processes a way to communicate; this is known as inter-process communication (IPC) and the main approaches are shared memory, message passing and remote procedure calls (see concurrent computing).
Other systems (particularly on smaller, less powerful computers) may provide co-operative multitasking, where each process is allowed to run uninterrupted until it makes a special request that tells the kernel it may switch to another process. Such requests are known as "yielding", and typically occur in response to requests for interprocess communication, or for waiting for an event to occur. Older versions of Windows and Mac OS both used co-operative multitasking but switched to pre-emptive schemes as the power of the computers to which they were targeted grew[citation needed].
The operating system might also support multiprocessing (SMP or Non-Uniform Memory Access); in that case, different programs and threads may run on different processors. A kernel for such a system must be designed to be re-entrant, meaning that it may safely run two different parts of its code simultaneously. This typically means providing synchronization mechanisms (such as spinlocks) to ensure that no two processors attempt to modify the same data at the same time.

1.1.4 The User Interface
In the industrial design field of human–machine interaction, the user interface is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the machine which aids the operator in making operational decisions. Examples of this broad concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls, and process controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology.
A user interface is the system by which people (users) interact with a machine. The user interface includes hardware (physical) and software (logical) components. User interfaces exist for various systems, and provide a means of:
• Input, allowing the users to manipulate a system, and/or
• Output, allowing the system to indicate the effects of the users' manipulation.
Generally, the goal of human-machine interaction engineering is to produce a user interface which makes it easy, efficient, and enjoyable to operate a machine in the way which produces the desired result. This generally means that the operator needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output, and also that the machine minimizes undesired outputs to the human.
Ever since the increased use of personal computers and the relative decline in societal awareness of heavy machinery, the term user interface has taken on overtones of the (graphical) user interface, while industrial control panel and machinery control design discussions more commonly refer to human-machine interfaces.
Other terms for user interface include "human–computer interface" (HCI) and "man–machine interface"
1.1.5 The File System

A file system (sometimes written as filesystem) is a method of storing and organizing arbitrary collections of data, in a form that is human-readable. A file system organizes data into an easy-to-manipulate database of human-readable names for the data, usually with a human-readable hierarchical organization of the data, for the storage, organization, manipulation, and retrieval by the computer's operating system. Each discrete collection of data in a file system is referred to as a computer file.
Programs do not necessarily require file names or directories to access data, and direct data access is possible by hardcoding programs to directly access data regions on a storage device. Similarly, directories or folders are technically unnecessary, and all data could be arranged in a flat-file manner, identifying data using some external locating method such as typed pages in a binder. Such a system would be extremely difficult for day-to-day management and organization of data by human users.
File systems are used on data storage devices such as hard disks or CD-ROMs to maintain the physical location of the files. Beyond this, they might provide access to data on a file server by acting as clients for a network protocol (e.g., NFS, SMB, or 9P clients), or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data (e.g., procfs). It is distinguished from a directory service and registry.
Although the smallest data element in a computing system is the bit, it is unwieldy to keep track of individual bits that define the data on a storage medium. Tracking individual bit usage on a storage medium would require a data usage map as large as the original storage medium itself. Most file systems instead make use of several abstraction layers to organize data bits into larger elements and groupings, so that less tracking information needs to be stored, and large groups of bits can be read or written in one step.
Bits are most commonly organized as 8-bit bytes, which are then grouped into sectors. The sector is the smallest individual unit that the data storage device is capable of physically reading or writing, generally a power of 2 in size (512 bytes or 1, 2, or 4 KiB are most common). If bits are organized into 512 byte / 4096 bit sectors, then a sector usage bitmap need only be 1/4096 of the total bit capacity, to keep track of all bits on the device.
The file system is responsible for organizing these sectors into files and directories, and keeping track of which sectors belong to which file and which are not being used. For example, the Apple DOS of the early 1980s would keep track of individual 256-byte sectors on 140 kilobyte disks in a track/sector map, with a maximum storable mapping capacity of 1600 sectors / 400 kilobytes, stored as a 200-byte map within a single reserved sector.
As the size of the storage device increases, a point is reached where even sectors are too small of a basic storage unit. Most modern file systems address data through an additional abstraction layer on top of sectors, with fixed-sized units called "clusters" or "blocks" which contain a certain number of disk sectors (usually 1-64), chosen when the file system is first created on the storage medium. This is the smallest amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file within that file system.
Each layer of abstraction on top of individual bits and bytes results in wasted space when a datafile is smaller than the smallest data unit the file system is capable of tracking. This wasted space within a sector, cluster, or block is commonly referred to as slack space, and it cannot normally be used for storage of additional data. For individual 256-byte sectors, the maximum wasted space is 255 bytes. For 64 kilobyte clusters, the maximum wasted space is 65,535 bytes.
However, file systems need not make use of a storage device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it is stored or dynamically generated (e.g., procfs).
] File names
Main article: Filename
A file name (or filename) is a name assigned to a file in order to secure storage location in the computer memory. Whether the file system has an underlying storage device or not, file systems typically have directories which associate file names with files, usually by connecting the file name to an index in a file allocation table of some sort, such as the FAT in a DOS file system, or an inode in a Unix-like file system. Directory structures may be flat, or allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories. In some file systems, file names are structured, with special syntax for filename extensions and version numbers. In others, file names are simple strings, and per-file metadata is stored elsewhere.
Metadata
Other bookkeeping information is typically associated with each file within a file system. The length of the data contained in a file may be stored as the number of blocks allocated for the file or as an exact byte count. The time that the file was last modified may be stored as the file's timestamp. Some file systems also store the file creation time, the time it was last accessed, and the time the file's meta-data was changed. (Note that many early PC operating systems did not keep track of file times.) Other information can include the file's device type (e.g., block, character, socket, subdirectory, etc.), its owner user ID and group ID, and its access permission settings (e.g., whether the file is read-only, executable, etc.).
Arbitrary attributes can be associated on advanced file systems, such as NTFS, XFS, ext2/ext3, some versions of UFS, and HFS+, using extended file attributes. This feature is implemented in the kernels of Linux, FreeBSD and Mac OS X operating systems, and allows metadata to be associated with the file at the file system level. This, for example, could be the author of a document, the character encoding of a plain-text document, or a checksum.
Some file systems allow for different data collections to be associated with one file name. These separate collections may be referred to as streams or forks. Apple has long used a forked file system on the Macintosh, and Microsoft supports streams in NTFS. Some file systems maintain multiple past revisions of a file under a single file name; the filename by itself retrieves the most recent version, while prior saved version can be accessed using a special naming convention such as "filename;4" to access the version four saves ago.

1.1.6 Common operating system

The most common operating systems, operting system is the most widely used

Like
• DOS -- developed by Microsoft Corporation for use with early Intel computers like the IBM PC and other compatibles.
• Macintosh -- the first popular graphical user interface, characterized by windows and icons on a desktop.
• Microsoft Windows Environments -- the successful Microsoft graphical user interface called Windows 3.1 was overlaid on DOS. In 1995, a new operating system called Windows 95 was introduced for the Intel personal computer market. Windows 95 is one step on the way to Windows NT, a full general-purpose operating system that can be used by all kinds of computers and communications devices.
• Unix -- a powerful, portable operating system popular with scientific workstations. The X-Windowing graphical user interface is grafted onto Unix.

1.2.1 MS-DOS
MS-DOS, short for Microsoft Disk Operating System, is an operating system that is widely used by the IBM-PC or compatible with it. Microsoft made MS-DOS as a mainstream operating system, before eventually stop supporting MS-DOS slowly when they make a graphical interface-based operating system (also known as GUI) for the mainstream market, which is referred to as Microsoft Windows.
MS-DOS was first released in 1981, and over time, Microsoft also launched a newer version of MS-DOS. No fewer than eight times until Microsoft released new versions of MS-DOS from 1981 until Microsoft stop supporting MS-DOS in 2000. MS-DOS is one key to Microsoft's success in producing the software, from a small company when founded programming language to become a software company that seemed to rule the world.

History
MS-DOS was created by a computer maker, named Seattle Computer Products (SCP) is headed by Tim Patterson - who later hired by Microsoft to develop DOS - in 1980 as a software operating system called Q-DOS (stands for Quick and Dirty Operating System), which subsequently was renamed 86-DOS, because the Q-DOS is designed to run on computers with Intel 8086 processor. Microsoft would buy a license with less price of 50,000 U.S. dollars from the SCP, then changed its name to MS-DOS. Furthermore, when IBM was about to launch a personal computer called the IBM PC, Microsoft also sells licenses MS-DOS to IBM.
Development
IBM and Microsoft subsequently released versions of DOS, where the version of IBM is directly bundled with the IBM PC called the "IBM PC-DOS" (short for International Business Machines Personal Computer Disk Operating System). Initially, IBM uses only what is fit for use of MS-DOS was released by Microsoft, such as programs or utilities that inclusion. Therefore, IBM's version is always slower than the released version of MS-DOS. But, MS-DOS version 4.0 is the first version of MS-DOS are really the same as the IBM PC-DOS, because Microsoft is berkonsenstrasi to develop an operating system successor to DOS, called OS / 2.
Microsoft, when licensed DOS to IBM, signed a license agreement that contains one point that Microsoft may license the MS-DOS to the company other than IBM, and the company is welcome to change the name MS-DOS became the name they use (example: TandyDOS, Compaq DOS , and others). Most versions of course the same as the version that has been developed by Microsoft with MS-DOS, but Microsoft started to revoke its license agreement so that other companies should use the name MS-DOS, rather than names that have been previously customized. Only IBM provided the flexibility to continue using the name of the IBM PC-DOS instead of MS-DOS.
MS-DOS was developed fairly quickly, with significant features taken from several other operating systems such as Microsoft Xenix - one variant of the UNIX operating system developed by Microsoft - and DR-DOS Digital Research, and products Other utilities such as Norton Utilities from Symantec Corporation (products adopted as Microsoft Disk Defragmenter), PC-Tools from Central Points (adopted products such as Microsoft Anti-Virus), expanded memory manager or EMM (Expanded Memory Manager) QEMM from Quarterdeck (product adopted as EMM386), the compression disk (or disk compression) DriveSpace from Stac Electronics, and many other products adopted.
When the Intel Corporation introduced a new microprocessor called the Intel 80286, Microsoft and IBM started the project a new operating system DOS replacement called OS / 2, which is basically a version of MS-DOS running in protected mode (protected mode). However, Microsoft left the project OS / 2 is to focus on the development of Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Windows NT. Digital Research makes a graphical interface called the GEM, but is less popular on the IBM PC or compatible computer. GEM has received its market on the ATARI ST computer machines, but eventually overtaken again by Microsoft with Windows version 3.0.


1.2.2 windows NT & Windows 2000
Windows NT Server is the operating system for servers that operasinnya 32 bit system from Microsoft that is an ancestor of the operating systems Windows 2000, Windows XP, Server 2003 and Windows Vista.Sistem awalnnya support operation on multiple platforms Mikroprosesor.Windows NT Server is not built from MS -Dos (unlike Windows 95) Ability to observe the 4 Gb.
history

Windows NT is actually built from the rubble of the rest of the development of operating systems IBM OS / 2 version 3.0, where the development of operating systems are Microsoft and IBM to develop together. Some time before the operating system is completed, Microsoft and IBM ended their relationship, and eventually IBM's OS / 2 was neglected. This is caused by the success of graphical operating system that runs on MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows version 3.0, which sold over a million copies in less than a month. IBM operating system OS / 2 version 3.0 has a code name NTOS / 2. And finally, Microsoft developed Windows NT alone, unaided by IBM.

Furthermore, Microsoft is recruiting some of those developers operating system from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), which came out of the old company as a result are not happy because he was working on the project is stopped forcibly. The development team is headed by David Neil Cutler, Sr., who is also famous for its VMS operating system and RSX/11M from DEC. Finally, the project NTOS / 2 was renamed to WNT.
During three years of development, the Windows NT operating system finally became a truly new. Free from 16-bit code to MS-DOS, supports 32-bit operation, and all the features offered by the 32-bit microprocessors, such as may put address up to 4 Gigabyte of memory, and protected mode. In addition, Windows NT was designed to be compatible with earlier operating systems, such as MS-DOS (which is run by using emulation), IBM OS / 2, and POSIX-based operating system (which has changed its code for Windows 32-bit).
Advandtages of windows NT
1. Increased capacity to serve more Simultaneous Server connects
2.Driver disk that supports fault tolerant disk mirroring and disk stripping with parity (RAID 1 and RAID 5)
3. Free from the Code's 16 Bit MS-Dos, supports 32-bit operation and all the features offered by the microprocessor 32 bits as can be observed up to 4 Gb memory and Protected.
4. In the design to be compatible with earlier operating systems like MS-DOS, IBM OS / 2.
5. Increased service capability server TCP / IP as DHCP, WNS, and DNS.
6. tool for integrating and monitoring Netware Networks.
7. Domain-based security model is full.
8. There Services for Macintosh
9. Can booting remotely to the client.
10. Integrated Back Office Package.
11. There is a Network Client Administrator.
Disadvantages of Windows NT Server

1. Browser is used as the base system on systems administration of many assistive devices using Javascript and Active X, it resulted in a very slow process. The same thing with PCs that use AMD's 300 MHz processor and 128 MB of SDRAM and 100 MHz bus can not be expected to work smoothly as expected.

2. Changing the basic configuration that can rarely be done successfully. This applies to the default value, log file format that is propritary and also the default option-index, all of which by default should always be stored on drive C. Administrators in this case should do the job that is not necessary, until the whole system running as it should, before making any changes.

3. Online documentation, which is practically not necessary, when the highest security systems have been selected causes the Active X security strategies that are less well on IIS.

4. Of the cases mentioned above, it takes a very complex configuration changes to ISS Server, which can be said to be very difficult and very troublesome. From the administrator believes Registry file change activity is a relatively heavy work for systems using Windows NT as the operating system.
Windows 2000

Microsoft released Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000, an earlier version known as Windows NT 5.0 or "NT 5.0". Windows 2000 version is aimed at two market share, the market share of workstation and server market share.

Among the features of the most significant Windows 2000 is Active Directory, a surrogate network model NT domain network model, which uses technology which is the industry standard, such as Domain Name System (DNS), Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and Kerberos for connects between a machine to another. Windows Terminal Services as well, which in Windows NT 4.0 only in one single product only, on a Windows 2000 server contained in all versions. The new features of Windows 98 which was adopted also instilled in them, such as an improved Device Manager (using the Microsoft Management Console), Windows Media Player, and DirectX 6.1 (which allows the operating system kernel-based Windows NT to run the game). Windows 2000 also is a version of Windows NT-based kernel, last but not require users to do the activation to it.

Although Windows 2000 can update the previous computer running Windows 98, Windows 2000 is not regarded as a product suitable for home users. The reasons are many, among them is the lack of device drivers for many devices such as the user's scanner (scanner) and also the printer (printer), at the time of release. The situation was finally turned on when Windows XP was released by Microsoft.
1.2.3 Windows 3.1
Windows 3.1

In response to the release of the IBM OS / 2 version 2.0 to the market, Microsoft developed the Windows 3.1, which offers some minor enhancement to the Windows 3.0 (as well as the ability to display the Fonts TrueType fonts, developed jointly by Apple), and also contained in them a lot of bug fixes and support for multimedia. Version 3.1 also removes support for real mode, so it only runs in protected mode which only the Intel 80286 microprocessor or higher. Microsoft was finally released Windows 3.11, which is a version of Windows 3.1 that includes all patches and fixes released after Windows 3.1 was launched in 1992.

1.2.4 Windows XP


Windows XP
(Part of the Microsoft Windows family)

display




developers
Microsoft
Web site: Windows XP: Homepage

information output
relase Date : 25 October 2001

Latest version: 5.1.2600.5512 Service Pack 3 (SP3 x86), 21 April 2008 info

Source model: Closed source, Shared source [1]

license:
MS-EULA

Kernel type:
Hybrid

Support platforms: x86, x86-64, IA-64

support status
Extended support for up to 8 April 2014. (Service Pack 2 until July 13, 2010)



Windows XP is a line of graphical operating systems made by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktop computers, laptops, and media center (Media Center). The name "XP" is short for "Experience". Windows XP is the successor to Windows 2000 Professional and Windows Me, and is the first Windows operating system version of consumer-oriented built on the Windows NT kernel and architecture. Windows XP was first released on October 25, 2001, and more than 400 million copies of the installation used in January 2006, according to an IDC analyst forecasts. Windows XP is replaced by Windows Vista, which was released to volume license users on 8 November 2006, and worldwide to the general public on January 30, 2007. Many Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) and retail sales also stop production of the device with Windows XP on June 30, 2008. Microsoft itself continued to sell Windows XP through Custom-built PC (smaller OEMs who sell assembled computers) until January 31, 2009. Windows XP may still be available for corporate users with volume licensing, as a means to downgrade to computers that are not yet ready to run the new operating system, Windows Vista Business Edition or Ultimate Edition or Windows 7 Professional.

Windows XP is available in various editions. The most common editions of the Windows XP operating system is Windows XP Home Edition, which is targeted for home users, and also Windows XP Professional, which offers additional features such as support for Windows Server domains and two physical processors, and is targeted at power users market , business and corporate clients. Meanwhile, Windows XP Media Center Edition has additional multimedia features that offer the ability to record and watch TV shows, view DVD movies, and listening to music. There is another Windows XP Tablet PC Edition is designed specifically for the Tablet PC platform, namely a personal computer that uses a stylus. Windows XP finally released for two additional architectures in addition to the Intel i386, which is called Windows XP 64-bit Edition for IA-64 architecture processors (Itanium) and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition for x86-64 processor architecture. There is also Windows XP Embedded, a version of Windows XP Professional which reduced all the features here and there for specific markets, and Windows XP Starter Edition is sold in some developing countries. In mid 2009, a first plant revealed that they have a cellular phone based on Windows XP operating system.
Versions of Windows NT-based architecture is known for its stability and better efficiency than the older versions of Windows 9x. Windows XP graphical interface presents a significantly redesigned, until the changes promoted by Microsoft as a more user-friendly than previous Windows versions. A new software management facility called the Side-by-Side Assembly was introduced to fix the problem of "DLL Hell" that often appear in Windows 9x. Windows XP is also the first version of Windows to use product activation "Windows Product Activation" to combat software piracy, although this is controversial. Windows XP has also been criticized by some users for computer security weaknesses, the integration of multiple applications such as Internet Explorer 6 and Windows Media Player is very tight, and for aspects of the standard user interface. Version with Service Pack 2, Service Pack 3 and Internet Explorer 8 addressed some of these concerns.

During development, project development of Windows XP is known by the codename "Whistler", taken from an area in British Columbia, as many Microsoft employees often do ski in Whistler-Blackcomb.
As of the end of August 2009, Windows XP is the version most widely used operating system in the world with a market share of 66.2%, after peaking at 76.1% in January 2007. According to a report from Net Applications, Windows XP pengsa highest market reached 85.3% in December 2006.

Advantages of Windows Xp
1. Microsoft Windows XP has a high stability of its system.
2. Applications that run on Windows XP system can be run by other computers via the internet.
3. Using Remote assistence we can monitor a computer malfunction that occurred on another computer remotely through the Internet.
4. Having a security system that can be used to protect specific folders to be used by the owner himself.
5. Windows XP can be used to share applications in real time throughout the world.
6. A lot of compatible software.
7. Many of the software that runs on a stable operating system.
8. There will be no problems or conflicts between software and hardware.
9. Installing the software was easy compared with the installation on other operating systems.
Disadvantages of windows Xp
1. Microsoft is limiting the convenience of parties the use of the Windows XP operating system in which each user must activate the Microsoft in certain periods.
2. The absence of the Java Virtual Machine as previous generations of Windows.
3. Price licensinya quite expensive.
4. Community is too little, because it is closed-source.
5. The number of viruses known to infect Windows XP.
6. System less stable.

1.2.5 Windows 95,98
Windows 95 is a hybrid 16-bit/32-bit operating system produced by Microsoft. Windows 95 was introduced to the public on August 14, 1995, following an aggressive advertising campaign from Microsoft.

Windows 95 was introduced by using the design menu "Start", an innovative menu to access the program group (replacement Program Manager), but it also introduced as a replacement for Windows Explorer File Manager, support plug-and-play, program support MS-DOS and Windows 16 -bit and 32-bit Windows, and support for file names (file) long, which supports the naming of up to 256 characters, and optionally Microsoft Internet Explorer browser.
About windows 95 and Successors
Windows 95 is the first product released by Windows in 1995.Di it contains the Microsoft Office 1995. The product is what makes the name of Microsoft Windows. Sure, Microsoft Windows 95 was established in 1995. Windows 98 is the second product introduced by Microsoft Windows in 1998. Microsoft Windows 98 consists of two types, namely Microsoft Windows 98 and Microsoft Windows 98 Second Edition. Microsoft Windows uses Mirosoft Office 1997. Windows Millennium Edition (ME) is the third product Microsoft Windows.Produk is actually good, but unfortunately, the features keamannya easily breached. With Windows Update, Microsoft can upgrade or add to the original product from Microsoft Windows. ME is equipped with Internet Explorer 5.5, DirectX 8.0, the latest version of Winamp, and of course, Windows Media Player 8. Microsoft Windows 2000 is Microsoft's fourth Windows.Versi product is much different from Windows 95, 98, and ME are using Microsoft Office 1990's. Windows has been equipped with Microsoft Office 2000. There are regular and Professional versions. There are 4 Service Pack (SP). Furthermore, Windows XP, there are two versions, namely Home and Professional. Consisting of 3 SP. Deadline until 2014. Microsoft uses the latest Microsoft Plus logo DirectX 9.0, Media Player 9 / 10, 5/5.1 Winamp, and FireWall. XP stands in 2002.Produk this is a product that attracted many people. The next product is Server 2003, this OS is a server.Tentu, established in 2003, as the name implies. Furthermore, Windows Vista. Consisting of four versions, Home Basic, Home Premium, Business, and Ultimate. OS was established in late 2005. Next up is Windows 7. This OS has been launched by Microsoft Corporation on October 22, 2009
Windows 95 features :
1. A redesigned graphical interface (very different from the Windows 3.x version), the desktop can be configured, the taskbar, Start button, and context menus. 2. Compatibility with old hardware, as well as MS-DOS 16-bit and 16-bit Windows.
3. 32-bit architecture for device drivers, called the Microsoft Virtual Device Driver (VxD).
4. Enhanced multitasking function. Windows 95 uses preemptive multitasking scheme, replacing the cooperative multitasking scheme previously used by Windows 3.x.
5. Network subsystem, disk subsystem, and subsystem-based printing 32-bit and also integrated.
6. Support an integrated network that is wide enough, include Microsoft Networking (NetBEUI), TCP / IP, NetWare (IPX / SPX), Banyan Vines; Windows Messaging to send e-mail; Dial-up Networking to connect to the Remote Access Services (RAS) and the connection Internet.
7. Support for long file names 8.Support plug-and-play hardware to detect the installation and configuration on its own.
9. Support Advanced Power Management (APM) for power management
10.Support of multimedia (audio / video) is integrated.
11.Support for centralized management of servers, such as group policy, and user profile.
Windows 98
Windows 98 is the operating system Microsoft Windows released on June 25, 1998. Windows 98 is a development of Windows 95, and then forwarded by Windows Me. Period ended his full support July 11, 2006
1.2.6 Windows GUI
Graphical User Interface (GUI) is one model of interaction between humans and computers. In addition to the GUI, there are also other models such as Character User Interface (CUI) that often we are familiar with the command line. In terms of comfort (attitude), both models have a 'penganut'nya respectively. Adherents of CUI is usually a system administrator based on LINUX operating system. For them, CUI felt more comfortable than the GUI, even after the GUI in Linux is growing rapidly, they persisted to use the CUI. Adherents of the GUI are usually those who are already familiar with the Windows operating system. For them, the GUI is set in stone is not negotiable.
now almost all the software 'race' to make the GUI more attractive so that users will also be interested in using the software. It demanded from the GUI is no longer user friendly but usability, which is a measure of the ease with the which a system can be learned or used, its safety, effectiveness and efficiency, and attitude of its users Towards it, Usablity has 3 aspects: learnability (easy for new users to be able to use the system effectively and achieve the most optimal performance), flexibility (variety of ways / models for users and systems in the exchange of information), and the effectiveness / robustness (the level of support provided for users to achieve their goals with success and provide an assessment of behavior that is directed by a purpose). The third aspect is if achieved it will give the value of attitude (convenience for the user).
Evaluation GUI viewed from the principle of usability is user friendly and can be done by looking at how the development of the GUI from time to time. Sometimes we are very difficult to get information such as GUI development we probably have never used it. But this is not a problem anymore because in the era of the Internet there are sites that already provide the fungi as a 'museum' GUI, the Guidebook and the Graphical User Interface Gallery. Based on the data from these sites, such as screenshots, so we can conduct an evaluation of the GUI. The figure below is an example screenshot of the Windows operating system development. feel the change ...

Screenshot Windows 95

Screenshot Windows Longhorn (4015)

Advantages of GUI include:
-You can create a more rich, and intuitive interface than is possible with CLI.
-Most lay users will have a smaller learning curve using a GUI.
-Complex, multi-step, dependent tasks can easily be grouped together in a way that discourages mistakes.
-Ability to embed media

Disadvantages of GUI include:
-Bloated software can waste memory, and reduce the performance of an application.
-Sometimes it is more difficult to allow for advanced/power options in an "intuitive" GUI interface, than it is with a CLI.
-Scripting a GUI interaction is not easily done unless it is just a set of repetitive tasks that don't require a lot of feedback, or actually testing the GUI.
1.2.7 Windows CLI
A command-line interface (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This text-only interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options. This method of instructing a computer to perform a given task is referred to as "entering" a command: the system waits for the user to conclude the submitting of the text command by pressing the "Enter" key (a descendant of the "carriage return" key of a typewriter keyboard). A command-line interpreter then receives, parses, and executes the requested user command. The command-line interpreter may be run in a text terminal or in a terminal emulator window as a remote shell client such as PuTTY. Upon completion, the command usually returns output to the user in the form of text lines on the CLI. This output may be an answer if the command was a question, or otherwise a summary of the operation.
The concept of the CLI originated when teletypewriter machines (TTY) were connected to computers in the 1950s, and offered results on demand, compared to batch oriented mechanical punched card input technology. Dedicated text-based CRT terminals followed, with faster interaction and more information visible at one time, then graphical terminals enriched the visual display of information. Currently personal computers encapsulate all three functions (batch processing, CLI, GUI) in software.
The CLI continues to co-evolve with GUIs like those provided by Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and the X Window System. In some applications, such as MATLAB and AutoCAD, a CLI is integrated with the GUI, with some benefits of both.
Usage
A CLI is used whenever a large vocabulary of commands or queries, coupled with a wide (or arbitrary) range of options, can be entered more rapidly as text than with a pure GUI. This is typically the case with operating system command shells. CLIs are used by systems with insufficient resources to support a graphical user interface. Some computer language systems (such as Python, Forth, LISP and many dialects of BASIC) provide an interactive command-line mode to allow for experimentation.
CLIs are often used by programmers and system administrators, in engineering and scientific environments, and by technically advanced personal computer users. CLIs are also popular among people with visual disability, since the commands and feedbacks can be displayed using Refreshable Braille displays.
A program that implements such a text interface is often called a command-line interpreter or shell. Examples include the various Unix shells (sh, ksh, csh, tcsh, bash, etc.), the historical CP/M CCP, and MS-DOS/IBM-DOS's COMMAND.COM, the latter two based heavily on DEC's RSX and RSTS CLIs.
In November 2006, Microsoft released version 1.0 of Windows PowerShell (formerly codenamed Monad), which combined features of traditional Unix shells with their object-oriented .NET Framework. MinGW and Cygwin are open-source packages for Windows that offer a Unix-like CLI. Microsoft provides MKS Inc.'s ksh implementation MKS Korn shell for Windows through their Services for UNIX add-on.
The latest versions of the Macintosh operating system are based on a variation of Unix called Darwin. On these computers, users can access a Unix-like command-line interface called Terminal found in the Applications Utilities folder. (This terminal uses bash by default.)


Screenshot of the MATLAB 7.4 command-line interface and GUI.
Some applications provide both a CLI and a GUI. The engineering/scientific numerical computation package MATLAB provides no GUI for some calculations, but the CLI can handle any calculation. The three-dimensional-modelling program Rhinoceros 3D provides a CLI as well as a distinct scripting language. In some computing environments, such as the Oberon or Smalltalk user interface, most of the text which appears on the screen may be used for giving commands.
Advantages of CLI:
-Most folks that have computer technology as a career are familiar with using this interface, especially if they have a *nix background.
-Requires a lower threshold for the interface. This means that a relatively simple program like telnet (available almost on all machines) is all you need to interface via CLI.
-Easy to integrate with scripting, and other programmatic interfaces.
-They can be quite powerful in the right hands. Piping multiple commands together, parsing feedback, etc.
-Many of the most common CLI executables in the *nix world are consistently ported, so there is a lot of consistency across systems.

Disadvantages of CLI:
-Not intuitive, especially to a lay user.
-No media.
-Complex combinations can be difficult to remember, and slower to type (but that is on a task by task basis, as often you can perform tasks faster with CLI)
Command for the command line/prompt
Assoc Display or modify file extension associations.
AT Schedule a command and a program to run on the computer.
ATTRIB Displays or change file attributes.
BREAK Sets or removes the extended checking of CTRL + C.
Cacls Displays or modify access control lists (ACLs) dai files.
CALL Calling a batch program from another batch program.
CD Displays the name or change the current directory.
CHCP Displays or change the active code page number.
Chdir Displays the name or change the current directory.
CHKDSK Check a floppy / hard drive and displays a status report ..
CHKNTFS View or change disk checks at boot time.
CLS Clear the screen ..
Running a Windows command interpreter CMD new.
COLOR Change foreground and background color at the command prompt.
COMP Compares the contents of two or more files.
COMPACT Displays or change the compression of files on NTFS partitions.
CONVERT Convert FAT to NTFS. You can not convert the current drive.
COPY Copy one or more files to another location.
DATE Displays or changes the date.
DEL Deletes one or more files.
DIR Displays a list of files and subdirectories in a directory.
DISKCOMP Comparing contents of two floppy disks.
Diskcopy Copying the contents of one disk to another floppy.
DOSKEY Mngedit command line, recall commands of Windows, and create macros.
ECHO Displays messages, or change the command echoing on or off.
Ending ENDLOCAL localization of environment changes in a batch file.
ERASE Delete one or several fie.
EXIT Exit from the cmd.exe program.
FC Compares two or more files, and Showing the difference those files.
FIND Search for text strings in a file or several files.
Findstr Find strings in files.
FOR Running a specific command for each file in a set of files.
Mem-FORMAT Formats a disk / floppy disk for use in Windows.
Ftype Display or modify file types used in file extension associations.
GOTO Directs the Windows command interpreter to a labeled line in a batch program.
GRAFTABL Allow Windows to display an extended character set in graphics mode.
HELP Provides Help information for Windows commands.
IF Running process conditions in batch programs.
LABEL Create, modify, or delete the volume label of a floppy / hard drive.
MD Create a directory.
Mkdir Make a directory.
MODE Configures system devices.
Showing results perlayar MORE ..
MOVE Move one or more files from one directory to another directory.
PATH Displays ata set search path for executable files.
PAUSE Delay processing of a batch file and displays the message.
Popd Restore the previous value of the current directory saved by PUSH.
PRINT Print a text file.
PROMPT Change the command prompt on Windows.
Pushd Save and then change the current directory.
RD Removes a directory.
RECOVER Returns information can still be read from a floppy / hard drive that had bad / damaged.
REM Record kemontar in batch files or CONFIG.SYS.
REN Rename a file.
RENAME Rename the file.
REPLACE Replaces files.
Rmdir Remove directory.
SET Display, set, or remove the Windows environment variables.
Starting SETLOCAL localization of environment changes in a batch file.
SHIFT Shifts the position of a replacable parameters in batch files.
SORT Sort the input.
START Start a separate window to run commands or specific programs.
SUBST Meng-associate a path with a drive letter.
TIME Display or set the system time.
TITLE Set the window title for CMD.EXE session.
TREE Displays graphically the structure of a directory or path drivve.
TYPE Displays the contents of a file ex.
VER Displays the Windows version.
VERIFY tells Windows to verify your file has been stored correctly in the hard disk / diskette.
VOL Displays the volume label and serial number of a disk / diskette
XCOPY Copy files and directory trees.
1.2.8 Windows control panel
The Control Panel is a part of the Microsoft Windows graphical user interface which allows users to view and manipulate basic system settings and controls via applets, such as adding hardware, adding and removing software, controlling user accounts, and changing accessibility options. Additional applets can be provided by third party software.
The Control Panel has been an inherent part of the Microsoft Windows operating system since its first release (Windows 1.0),[1] with many of the current applets being added in later versions. Beginning with Windows 95, the Control Panel is implemented as a special folder, i.e. the folder does not physically exist, but only contains shortcuts to various applets such as Add or Remove Programs and Internet Options. Physically, these applets are stored as .cpl files. For example, the Add or Remove Programs applet is stored under the name appwiz.cpl in the SYSTEM32 folder.
In recent versions of Windows, the Control Panel has two views, Classic View and Category View, and it is possible to switch between these through an option that appears on the left side of the window.
Many of the individual Control Panel applets can be accessed in other ways. For instance, Display Properties can be accessed by right-clicking on an empty area of the desktop and choosing Properties.
The classic view consists of shortcuts to the various control panel applets, usually without any description (other than the name). The categories are seen if the user use "Details" view.
The category view consists of categories, which when clicked on display the control panel applets related to the category. In Windows Vista, the category displays links to the most commonly used applets below the name of the category.


Control Panel under Windows 7 The Control Panel is a part of the Microsoft Windows graphical user interface which allows users to view and manipulate basic system settings and controls via applets, such as adding hardware, adding and removing software, controlling user accounts, and changing accessibility options. Additional applets can be provided by third party software. The Control Panel has been an inherent part of the Microsoft Windows operating system since its first release (Windows 1.0),[1] with many of the current applets being added in later versions. Beginning with Windows 95, the Control Panel is implemented as a special folder, i.e. the folder does not physically exist, but only contains shortcuts to various applets such as Add or Remove Programs and Internet Options. Physically, these applets are stored as .cpl files. For example, the Add or Remove Programs applet is stored under the name appwiz.cpl in the SYSTEM32 folder. In recent versions of Windows, the Control Panel has two views, Classic View and Category View, and it is possible to switch between these through an option that appears on the left side of the window. Many of the individual Control Panel applets can be accessed in other ways. For instance, Display Properties can be accessed by right-clicking on an empty area of the desktop and choosing Properties. The classic view consists of shortcuts to the various control panel applets, usually without any description (other than the name). The categories are seen if the user use "Details" view. The category view consists of categories, which when clicked on display the control panel applets related to the category. In Windows Vista, the category displays links to the most commonly used applets below the name of the category.
What to do
How to access Windows Control Panel
Windows 2000/NT and Windows 95/98/Me
• Select Start|Settings|Control Panel
Windows XP, Windows 2003 and Windows Vista
• Select Start|Control Panel
If you are using 'Classic' view in Windows XP and Windows Vista
• Select Start|Settings|Control Panel
In Vista, the word 'Start' is only visible when you hover over the 'Start' icon.
How to access Administrative Tools
Depending on which Windows operating system you have installed, Administrative Tools can be accessed either via Control Panel or, in some cases, more directly.
Windows 2000
• Select Start|Settings|Control Panel|Administrative Tools
Windows XP
• Select Start|Settings|Control Panel|Performance and Maintenance|Administrative Tools

If you are using 'Classic' view
• Select Start|Settings|Control Panel|Administrative Tools
Windows 2003
• Select Start|Control Panel|Administrative Tools
• Select Start|Administrative Tools
Windows Vista
• Select Start|Control Panel|Systems and Maintenance|Administrative Tools

If you are using 'Classic' view,
• Select Start|Control Panel|Administrative Tools
Windows NT
• Select Start|Programs|Administrative Tools
Tools/Components displayed in Windows Control Panel
The following table lists some of the more commonly used components/tools and their names, available in Windows Control Panel.